Major Battles of World War 2

Major Battles of World War 2 There were numerous battles in World War II. Some of these battles lasted only days while others took months or years. Some of the battles were notable for the material losses such as tanks or aircraft carriers while others were notable for the number of human losses. Although this is not a comprehensive list of all battles of WWII, it is a list of the major battles of World War II. A note about the dates: Somewhat surprisingly, historians dont all agree on the exact dates of battles. For instance, some use the date that a city was surrounded while others prefer the date that major fighting commenced. For this list, I have used the dates that seemed the most agreed upon. 20 Major Battles of World War II Battles Dates Atlantic September 1939 - May 1945 Berlin April 16 - May 2, 1945 Britain July 10 - October 31, 1940 Bulge December 16, 1944 - January 25, 1945 El Alamein (First Battle) July 1-27, 1942 El Alamein (Second Battle) October 23 - November 4, 1942 Guadalcanal Campaign August 7, 1942 - February 9, 1943 Iwo Jima February 19 - March 16, 1945 Kursk July 5 - August 23, 1943 Leningrad (Siege) September 8, 1941 - January 27, 1944 Leyte Gulf October 23-26, 1944 Midway June 3-6, 1942 Milne Bay August 25 - September 5, 1942 Normandy (including D-Day) June 6 - August 25, 1944 Okinawa April 1 - June 21, 1945 Operation Barbarossa June 22, 1941 - December 1941 Operation Torch November 8-10, 1942 Pearl Harbor December 7, 1941 Philippine Sea June 19-20, 1944 Stalingrad August 21, 1942 - February 2, 1943

The History of Algebra

The History of Algebra Various derivations of the word algebra, which is of Arabian origin, have been given by different writers. The first mention of the word is to be found in the title of a work by Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi (Hovarezmi), who flourished about the beginning of the 9th century. The full title is ilm al-jebr wal-muqabala, which contains the ideas of restitution and comparison, or opposition and comparison, or resolution and equation, jebr being derived from the verb jabara, to reunite, and muqabala, from gabala, to make equal. (The root jabara is also met with in the word algebrista, which means a bone-setter, and is still in common use in Spain.) The same derivation is given by Lucas Paciolus (Luca Pacioli), who reproduces the phrase in the transliterated form alghebra e almucabala, and ascribes the invention of the art to the Arabians. Other writers have derived the word from the Arabic particle al (the definite article), and gerber, meaning man. Since, however, Geber happened to be the name of a celebrated Moorish philosopher who flourished in about the 11th or 12th century, it has been supposed that he was the founder of algebra, which has since perpetuated his name. The evidence of Peter Ramus (1515-1572) on this point is interesting, but he gives no authority for his singular statements. In the preface to his Arithmeticae libri duo et totidem Algebrae (1560) he says: The name Algebra is Syriac, signifying the art or doctrine of an excellent man. For Geber, in Syriac, is a name applied to men, and is sometimes a term of honour, as master or doctor among us. There was a certain learned mathematician who sent his algebra, written in the Syriac language, to Alexander the Great, and he named it almucabala, that is, the book of dark or mysterious things, which others would rather call the doctrine of algebra. To this day the same book is in great estimation among the learned in the oriental nations, and by the Indians, who cultivate this art, it is called aljabra and alboret; though the name of the author himself is not known. The uncertain authority of these statements, and the plausibility of the preceding explanation, have caused philologists to accept the derivation from al and jabara. Robert Recorde in his Whetstone of Witte (1557) uses the variant algeber, while John Dee (1527-1608) affirms that algiebar, and not algebra, is the correct form, and appeals to the authority of the Arabian Avicenna. Although the term algebra is now in universal use, various other appellations were used by the Italian mathematicians during the Renaissance. Thus we find Paciolus calling it lArte Magiore; ditta dal vulgo la Regula de la Cosa over Alghebra e Almucabala. The name larte magiore, the greater art, is designed to distinguish it from larte minore, the lesser art, a term which he applied to the modern arithmetic. His second variant, la regula de la cosa, the rule of the thing or unknown quantity, appears to have been in common use in Italy, and the word cosa was preserved for several centuries in the forms coss or algebra, cossic or algebraic, cossist or algebraist, c. Other Italian writers termed it the Regula rei et census, the rule of the thing and the product, or the root and the square. The principle underlying this expression is probably to be found in the fact that it measured the limits of their attainments in algebra, for they were unable to solve equations of a higher degree than the quadratic or square. Franciscus Vieta (Francois Viete) named it Specious Arithmetic, on account of the species of the quantities involved, which he represented symbolically by the various letters of the alphabet. Sir Isaac Newton introduced the term Universal Arithmetic, since it is concerned with the doctrine of operations, not affected on numbers, but on general symbols. Notwithstanding these and other idiosyncratic appellations, European mathematicians have adhered to the older name, by which the subject is now universally known. Continued on page two.   This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. It is difficult to assign the invention of any art or science definitely to any particular age or race. The few fragmentary records, which have come down to us from past civilizations, must not be regarded as representing the totality of their knowledge, and the omission of a science or art does not necessarily imply that the science or art was unknown. It was formerly the custom to assign the invention of algebra to the Greeks, but since the decipherment of the Rhind papyrus by Eisenlohr this view has changed, for in this work there are distinct signs of an algebraic analysis. The particular problem-a heap (hau) and its seventh makes 19-is solved as we should now solve a simple equation; but Ahmes varies his methods in other similar problems. This discovery carries the invention of algebra back to about 1700 B.C., if not earlier. It is probable that the algebra of the Egyptians was of a most rudimentary nature, for otherwise we should expect to find traces of it in the works of the Greek aeometers. of whom Thales of Miletus (640-546 B.C.) was the first. Notwithstanding the prolixity of writers and the number of the writings, all attempts at extracting an algebraic analysis from their geometrical theorems and problems have been fruitless, and it is generally conceded that their analysis was geometrical and had little or no affinity to algebra. The first extant work which approaches to a treatise on algebra is by Diophantus (q.v.), an Alexandrian mathematician, who flourished about A.D. 350. The original, which consisted of a preface and thirteen books, is now lost, but we have a Latin translation of the first six books and a fragment of another on polygonal numbers by Xylander of Augsburg (1575), and Latin and Greek translations by Gaspar Bachet de Merizac (1621-1670). Other editions have been published, of wh ich we may mention Pierre Fermats (1670), T. L. Heaths (1885) and P. Tannerys (1893-1895). In the preface to this work, which is dedicated to one Dionysius, Diophantus explains his notation, naming the square, cube and fourth powers, dynamis, cubus, dynamodinimus, and so on, according to the sum in the indices. The unknown he terms arithmos, the number, and in solutions he marks it by the final s; he explains the generation of powers, the rules for multiplication and division of simple quantities, but he does not treat of the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of compound quantities. He then proceeds to discuss various artifices for the simplification of equations, giving methods which are still in common use. In the body of the work he displays considerable ingenuity in reducing his problems to simple equations, which admit either of direct solution, or fall into the class known as indeterminate equations. This latter class he discussed so assiduously that they are often known as Diophantine problems, and the methods of resolving them as the Diophantine analysis (see EQUATION, Indeterminate.) It is difficult to believe that this work of Diophantus arose spontaneously in a period of general stagnation. It is more than likely that he was indebted to earlier writers, whom he omits to mention, and whose works are now lost; nevertheless, but for this work, we should be led to assume that algebra was almost, if not entirely, unknown to the Greeks. The Romans, who succeeded the Greeks as the chief civilized power in Europe, failed to set store on their literary and scientific treasures; mathematics was all but neglected; and beyond a few improvements in arithmetical computations, there are no material advances to be recorded. In the chronological development of our subject we have now to turn to the Orient. Investigation of the writings of Indian mathematicians has exhibited a fundamental distinction between the Greek and Indian mind, the former being pre-eminently geometrical and speculative, the latter arithmetical and mainly practical. We find that geometry was neglected except in so far as it was of service to astronomy; trigonometry was advanced, and algebra improved far beyond the attainments of Diophantus. Continued on page three.   This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. The earliest Indian mathematician of whom we have certain knowledge is Aryabhatta, who flourished about the beginning of the 6th century of our era. The fame of this astronomer and mathematician rests on his work, the Aryabhattiyam, the third chapter of which is devoted to mathematics. Ganessa, an eminent astronomer, mathematician and scholiast of Bhaskara, quotes this work and makes separate mention of the cuttaca (pulveriser), a device for effecting the solution of indeterminate equations. Henry Thomas Colebrooke, one of the earliest modern investigators of Hindu science, presumes that the treatise of Aryabhatta extended to determinate quadratic equations, indeterminate equations of the first degree, and probably of the second. An astronomical work, called the Surya-siddhanta (knowledge of the Sun), of uncertain authorship and probably belonging to the 4th or 5th century, was considered of great merit by the Hindus, who ranked it only second to the work of Brahmagupta, who flourish ed about a century later. It is of great interest to the historical student, for it exhibits the influence of Greek science upon Indian mathematics at a period prior to Aryabhatta. After an interval of about a century, during which mathematics attained its highest level, there flourished Brahmagupta (b. A.D. 598), whose work entitled Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta (The revised system of Brahma) contains several chapters devoted to mathematics. Of other Indian writers mention may be made of Cridhara, the author of a Ganita-sara (Quintessence of Calculation), and Padmanabha, the author of an algebra. A period of mathematical stagnation then appears to have possessed the Indian mind for an interval of several centuries, for the works of the next author of any moment stand but little in advance of Brahmagupta. We refer to Bhaskara Acarya, whose work the Siddhanta-ciromani (Diadem of anastronomical System), written in 1150, contains two important chapters, the Lilavati (the beautiful [science or art]) and Viga-ganita (root-extraction), which are given up to arithmetic and algebra. English translations of the mathematical chapters of the Brahma-siddhanta and Siddhanta-ciromani by H. T. Colebrooke (1817), and of the Surya-siddhanta by E. Burgess, with annotations by W. D. Whitney (1860), may be consulted for details. The question as to whether the Greeks borrowed their algebra from the Hindus or vice versa has been the subject of much discussion. There is no doubt that there was a constant traffic between Greece and India, and it is more than probable that an exchange of produce would be accompanied by a transference of ideas. Moritz Cantor suspects the influence of Diophantine methods, more particularly in the Hindu solutions of indeterminate equations, where certain technical terms are, in all probability, of Greek origin. However this may be, it is certain that the Hindu algebraists were far in advance of Diophantus. The deficiencies of the Greek symbolism were partially remedied; subtraction was denoted by placing a dot over the subtrahend; multiplication, by placing bha (an abbreviation of bhavita, the product) after the factom; division, by placing the divisor under the dividend; and square root, by inserting ka (an abbreviation of karana, irrational) before the quantity. The unknown was ca lled yavattavat, and if there were several, the first took this appellation, and the others were designated by the names of colours; for instance, x was denoted by ya and y by ka (from kalaka, black). Continued on page four. This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. A notable improvement on the ideas of Diophantus is to be found in the fact that the Hindus recognized the existence of two roots of a quadratic equation, but the negative roots were considered to be inadequate, since no interpretation could be found for them. It is also supposed that they anticipated discoveries of the solutions of higher equations. Great advances were made in the study of indeterminate equations, a branch of analysis in which Diophantus excelled. But whereas Diophantus aimed at obtaining a single solution, the Hindus strove for a general method by which any indeterminate problem could be resolved. In this they were completely successful, for they obtained general solutions for the equations ax( or -)byc, xyaxbyc (since rediscovered by Leonhard Euler) and cy2ax2b. A particular case of the last equation, namely, y2ax21, sorely taxed the resources of modern algebraists. It was proposed by Pierre de Fermat to Bernhard Frenicle de Bessy, and in 1657 to all mathematician s. John Wallis and Lord Brounker jointly obtained a tedious solution which was published in 1658, and afterwards in 1668 by John Pell in his Algebra. A solution was also given by Fermat in his Relation. Although Pell had nothing to do with the solution, posterity has termed the equation Pells Equation, or Problem, when more rightly it should be the Hindu Problem, in recognition of the mathematical attainments of the Brahmans. Hermann Hankel has pointed out the readiness with which the Hindus passed from number to magnitude and vice versa. Although this transition from the discontinuous to continuous is not truly scientific, yet it materially augmented the development of algebra, and Hankel affirms that if we define algebra as the application of arithmetical operations to both rational and irrational numbers or magnitudes, then the Brahmans are the real inventors of algebra. The integration of the scattered tribes of Arabia in the 7th century by the stirring religious propaganda of Mahomet was accompanied by a meteoric rise in the intellectual powers of a hitherto obscure race. The Arabs became the custodians of Indian and Greek science, whilst Europe was rent by internal dissensions. Under the rule of the Abbasids, Bagdad became the centre of scientific thought; physicians and astronomers from India and Syria flocked to their court; Greek and Indian manuscripts were translated (a work commenced by the Caliph Mamun (813-833) and ably continued by his successors); and in about a century the Arabs were placed in possession of the vast stores of Greek and Indian learning. Euclids Elements were first translated in the reign of Harun-al-Rashid (786-809), and revised by the order of Mamun. But these translations were regarded as imperfect, and it remained for Tobit ben Korra (836-901) to produce a satisfactory edition. Ptolemys Almagest, the works of Apolloniu s, Archimedes, Diophantus and portions of the Brahmasiddhanta, were also translated. The first notable Arabian mathematician was Mahommed ben Musa al-Khwarizmi, who flourished in the reign of Mamun. His treatise on algebra and arithmetic (the latter part of which is only extant in the form of a Latin translation, discovered in 1857) contains nothing that was unknown to the Greeks and Hindus; it exhibits methods allied to those of both races, with the Greek element predominating. The part devoted to algebra has the title al-jeur walmuqabala, and the arithmetic begins with Spoken has Algoritmi, the name Khwarizmi or Hovarezmi having passed into the word Algoritmi, which has been further transformed into the more modern words algorism and algorithm, signifying a method of computing. Continued on page five. This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document. Tobit ben Korra (836-901), born at Harran in Mesopotamia, an accomplished linguist, mathematician and astronomer, rendered conspicuous service by his translations of various Greek authors. His investigation of the properties of amicable numbers (q.v.) and of the problem of trisecting an angle, are of importance. The Arabians more closely resembled the Hindus than the Greeks in the choice of studies; their philosophers blended speculative dissertations with the more progressive study of medicine; their mathematicians neglected the subtleties of the conic sections and Diophantine analysis, and applied themselves more particularly to perfect the system of numerals (see NUMERAL), arithmetic and astronomy (q.v..) It thus came about that while some progress was made in algebra, the talents of the race were bestowed on astronomy and trigonometry (q.v..) Fahri des al Karbi, who flourished about the beginning of the 11th century, is the author of the most important Arabian work on algebra. He follows the methods of Diophantus; his work on indeterminate equations has no resemblance to the Indian methods, and contains nothing that cannot be gathered from Diophantus. He solved quadratic equations both geometrically and algebraically, and also equations of the form x2naxnb0; he also proved certain relations between the sum of the first n natural numbers, and the sums of their squares and cubes. Cubic equations were solved geometrically by determining the intersections of conic sections. Archimedes problem of dividing a sphere by a plane into two segments having a prescribed ratio, was first expressed as a cubic equation by Al Mahani, and the first solution was given by Abu Gafar al Hazin. The determination of the side of a regular heptagon which can be inscribed or circumscribed to a given circle was reduced to a more complicated equation which was first successfully resolved by Abul Gud. The method of solving equations geometrically was considerably developed by Omar Khayyam of Khorassan, who flourished in the 11th century. This author questioned the possibility of solving cubics by pure algebra, and biquadratics by geometry. His first contention was not disproved until the 15th century, but his second was disposed of by Abul Weta (940-908), who succeeded in solving the forms x4a and x4ax3b. Although the foundations of the geometrical resolution of cubic equations are to be ascribed to the Greeks (for Eutocius assigns to Menaechmus two methods of solving the equation x3a and x32a3), yet the subsequent development by the Arabs must be regarded as one of their most important achievements. The Greeks had succeeded in solving an isolated example; the Arabs accomplished the general solution of numerical equations. Considerable attention has been directed to the different styles in which the Arabian authors have treated their subject. Moritz Cantor has suggested that at one time there existed two schools, one in sympathy With the Greeks, the other with the Hindus; and that, although the writings of the latter were first studied, they were rapidly discarded for the more perspicuous Grecian methods, so that, among the later Arabian writers, the Indian methods were practically forgotten and their mathematics became essentially Greek in character. Turning to the Arabs in the West we find the same enlightened spirit; Cordova, the capital of the Moorish empire in Spain, was as much a centre of learning as Bagdad. The earliest known Spanish mathematician is Al Madshritti (d. 1007), whose fame rests on a dissertation on amicable numbers, and on the schools which were founded by his pupils at Cordoya, Dama and Granada. Gabir ben Allah of Sevilla, commonly called Geber, was a celebrated astronomer and apparently skilled in algebra, for it has been supposed that the word algebra is compounded from his name. When the Moorish empire began to wane the brilliant intellectual gifts which they had so abundantly nourished during three or four centuries became enfeebled, and after that period they failed to produce an author comparable with those of the 7th to the 11th centuries. Continued on page six. This document is part of an article on Algebra from the 1911 edition of an encyclopedia, which is out of copyright here in the U.S. The article is in the public domain, and you may copy, download, print and distribute this work as you see fit. Every effort has been made to present this text accurately and cleanly, but no guarantees are made against errors. Neither Melissa Snell nor About may be held liable for any problems you experience with the text version or with any electronic form of this document.

Why Should the Wendy's Brand Enter the European Market Research Paper

Why Should the Wendy's Brand Enter the European Market - Research Paper Example .... 1.2 Research Methodology†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 1.3 Research Objectives†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1.4 Reliability†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1.5 Data Collection and Presentation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1.6 Limitation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 2. Data Presentation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2.2 Data Analysis†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 2.3 Research Findings – France†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 2.4 Research Findings – Denmark and the United Kingdom†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 2.5 Research Findings – Spain†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦... 2.6 Research Findings – Wendy’s Best Practice†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 3. Conclusion and Recommendations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚ ¬ ¦ 4. Report Evaluation†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 5. References 1. Introduction: Wendy’s is a well known American Burger Fast Food which operated over 6,500 restaurants under the Wendy’s Brand in 26 countries and territories in the world. (The Wendy's Company, 2011). Since Wendy’s International was separated from the Wendy’s U S Brand in 2009 the Brand has laid the groundwork for a much more adapted international expansion which has been really positive according to Darrell van Ligten, President of Wendy’s international (2011). The Brand is still growing with new restaurant development announcements in Singapore, the Middle East and Nord Africa, the Russian Federation, The Eastern Caribbean, Argentina, the Philippines and Japan (The Wendy's Company, 2011). Unfortunately according to the map of Wendy’s Around the World Wendy’s International is missing on an important market which is Europe representing 17.10% of the Global Fast Food Market (2009). According to the Industry profile of Fast Food in Europe the European market reach a value of 34.2 billion of dollars and grew by 4,4% (Datamonitor, 2009). To be more precise the French Market of fast food industry in 2009 was 6.4 billion of dollars with a faster growth than the German and UK market (Datamonitor, Fast Food Industry Profile: France, 2010). 1.1 Aim: The aim of this research is to investigate on the advantage that the Wendy’s Brand could get by entering the European Market. 1.2 Research Methodology During this research a longitudinal approach was used to identify a problem, which identified the need of the Wendy’s Brand to grow in Europe due to the expansion of the brand in the International Market. Then research to understand the relevant gathered information and interpret them in their context. In order to construct a realistic study the researcher tried to have equilibrium between data collection and data analysis. A deductive approach was use during this research which involves the development of a theory that is subjected to a rigorous test like a scientific research. According to Robson there are five sequential stages through which deductive research will progress: 1. The hypothesis, Europe is an interesting Market for Wendy’s. 2. Expressing the hypothesis in operational terms, like how much revenue could Wendy’s expect expending in Europe. 3. Testing this operational hypothesis, with the research on three objectives. 4. Examining the specific outcome of the inquiry, for example what would be the benefices for the Wendy’s brand to be developed in Europe? 5. If necessary, modifying the theory with the

Internal Control System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Internal Control System - Essay Example Internal Auditing is defined as an independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization's operations. It helps an organization to accomplish its objectives by evolving a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance processes. The internal audit activity evaluates the adequacy and effectiveness of controls that encompass the organization's governance, operations, and information systems (Arens, Loebbecke, Lemon, & Splettstoesser, 2006). Internal audit reviews include the reliability and integrity of financial and operational information, effectiveness and efficiency of operations, safeguarding of assets, and compliance with laws, regulations, and contracts. These reviews ascertain the extent to which operating and program goals and objectives have been established and whether they conform to the requirements of the organization. It also examines the extent to which results are consistent with established goals and objectives and whether operations and programs are implemented or performed as intended. One of the primary responsibilities of internal auditing is the assessment of internal control system of a company. ... It also examines the extent to which results are consistent with established goals and objectives and whether operations and programs are implemented or performed as intended. One of the primary responsibilities of internal auditing is the assessment of internal control system of a company. The French Institute of Chartered Accountants defines internal control "as a set of security measures which contribute to the control of a company. Its aim is to ensure, on the other hand, the security and safeguard of assets and the quality of information, on the other hand, the application of instructions given by the Senior management, and to encourage improvements in performances. It is evidenced through the organisation, methods, and procedures for each of the company's activities, so as to ensure the continuity of that company." There are two identified types of controls, Preventive and Defective Controls. Preventive controls are intended to foil errors or irregularities from happening. It is a positive control that helps avert losses. On the other hand, detective controls are devised to identify or uncover inaccuracy and irregularities after they have occurred. Both of these controls play an important role to an effective control system. Preventive controls are essential because they are proactive and emphasize quality. However, detective controls play a critical role in providing evidence that the preventive controls are working and thwarts losses. Internal Control Objectives There are seven pre-defined internal control objectives, namely, authorization, completeness, accuracy, validity, physical safeguards & security, error handling, and segregation of duties. 1) Accountability, authorization and approval- the

What success has liberalism sought to emancipate individuals Essay Example for Free

What success has liberalism sought to emancipate individuals Essay Liberalism has always fought for the rights of the individual as it was one of the founding principles of the liberal ideology according to John Locke in the 17th century. As well as the rights of the individual, John Locke also saw freedom and toleration as two other key components of liberalism. This question demands, however, an examination of the success of liberal policies towards the emancipation of the individual. During the course of this essay one will examine how liberalism has freed the individual during the 19th Century under Gladstone and during the liberal reforms of 1906-1912. Finally one will conclude that in concordance with R. Rurup that, Liberalism is regarded as the truest protagonist of emancipation. Reforms enacted by liberal governments, often did provide huge improvements in both living standards and education however, they did not always fully emancipate the individual.[1: R. Rurup, Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook, (1975) 20 (1): p. 59] First and foremost, one must look at the great liberal reforms of the 19th Century, enacted during both the first and second ministry of William Gladstone. Vincent, claims that, such reforms that, Maximised individuality, were, genuinely liberal. The first reform that most clearly emancipates the individual during Gladstones premiership was the Elementary Education Act of 1870. This as Heywood argues was seen as a way out in the 19th Century form the, Spread of slums, poverty, ignorance and disease. The act established the English elementary schooling system, as children up to the age of 12 were made to attend primary school. It created a codified curriculum with six standards or ages 5-12. Strict punishments were laid upon parents who refused to send their children to school. Whilst, this bill created the provision of elementary education in the United Kingdom, it also led to many problems as the new compulsory schools were not free. A means tested scheme applied to the poorest who could not afford to send their children to school, but for many it put them in a very difficult financial position. Vincent, therefore, criticises the Elementary Education Act by deeming it, Gladstones empirical socialism. The act, however, was a success as by 1880 4000 school were taken over by school boards and nearly  2.3 million children were enrolled in compulsory education up to the age of 12. One can say therefore, despite the criticisms by Vincent, that the Elementary Education Act did successfully emancipate the individual as it lead to higher overall wages as workers were more skilled, for example they could read and take measurements, and it successfully started the primary schooling system in the United Kingdom. [2: Vincent A, A Modern Political Ideologies, (Blackwell) 1992 pg. 34][3: Vincent A, Political Ideologies, 1992 pg. 34][4: Heywood A, Political Ideologies an Introduction, (Palgrave Macmillan) 2007 pg. 56 ][5: Vin cent A, Political Ideologies, 1992 pg. 35] Secondly, Gladstones ministry continued to emancipate the individual by expanding the franchise in the United Kingdom. This bill was the third reform act in the 19th Century and continued to increase the franchise by allowing anyone who had to pay rent of 10 pounds and above to vote as well as anyone who owned land with the value of 10 pounds and above. This is equivalent to  £7,300 in 2013 using the retail pricing index. This was a huge leap forward as Goodwin describes the bill as, Progress to a better society, The bill nearly doubled the franchise in England from 2,300,000 in 1880 voters to 4,100,000 voters in 1885 and did double the franchise in the whole country from 3,000,000 voters in 1880 to 6,160,000 voters in 1892. Male suffrage varied throughout the kingdom, however, in England and Wales, 2 in 3 adult males had the vote; in Scotland, 3 in 5 did; and in Ireland, the figure was only 1 in 2. Whilst the bill was a long way off from universal suffrage and did not apply to women at all, the bill did seek to emancipate those land-owners and those who rented who were not franchised in previous voting reform legislation. Therefore, whilst this piece of legislation did not meet the liberal ideals of equality according to John Locke and John Stuart Mill, due to its exclusion of women, it did enfranchise and emancipate a large proportion of the male population from prejudice in the voting system of the United Kingdom.[6: Goodwin B, Using Political Ideas, (John Wiley Sons) 2007 pg.53][7: British Electoral Facts 1832-1987, compiled and edited by F.W.S. Craig ] Thirdly, one will look at the liberal reforms of the early twentieth century. The liberal reforms are the best example of the split in liberal  thinking from classical liberalism to modern liberalism. They, shifted their outlook from a _laissez-faire_ system to a more collectivist approach, Modern Liberalism was started in the early twentieth century by leaders such as Campbell-Bannerman and Asquith. Heywood claims that inception of the reforms was spawned from the belief that, the state should help people help themselves. One will first look at how the liberal reforms emancipated the workers of the early 20th Century. The Labour Exchanges Act of 1909, created state run labour exchanges with the specific role of placing people in work who were affected by the seasonal demand of shipping and other seasonally affected trade, especially in winter. Whilst, opposed by labour unions as they feared that the labour exchanges would reduce the effectiveness of collective bargaining for fair wages, the labour exchanges by 1913 were putting 3,000 people a day into work. Whilst successful in emancipating some workers from the threat of seasonal unemployment the labour exchanges did have a small impact as only 25% of the working population in the United Kingdom found employment though them. [8: Vincent Emy, H Liberals, radicals, and social politics, 1892-1914 p. 14][9: Heywood A, Political Ideologies, 2007 pg. 60][10: Watts, D Whigs, Radicals, and Liberals, 1815-1914, p.89][11: Watts, D Whigs, Radicals, and Liberals, 1815-1914, p.89] Lastly, within the liberal reforms one must look at the National Health Insurance Act of 1911, which truly emancipated members of the working class, as they would have a safety net if they fell ill. Although, Goodwin views this reform as an, interference with individual freedom, but does argue that Hobhouse, having reiterated some of T. H. Greens views, claims that this extension of public control is justified on, Humane grounds. Goodwin does also explain that any, loss of independence, should be counted against the, benefits offered by the welfare measure. The National Insurance Act of 1911, offered many benefits and emancipated every worker in the United Kingdom who earned less that  £160 a year. The scheme created a compulsory government-run insurance plan against unemployment through illness. This emancipated workers from the fear of becoming destitute though illness. All workers paid four pence a week to the scheme, the employer paid three pence and the government paid two pen ce. Whilst there was criticism of  the act, especially from the conservative part, as they argued that it was not the governments duty to be involved in such a scheme, the bill was passed and helped millions of workers. This can be seen as the most influential bill that any liberal government has passed during the liberal reforms between 1906 and 1912 as it both laid the foundations for the Welfare State but it also emancipated millions of workers from poverty as envisaged in _Life and Labour of the People_ by Rowntree and Booth, two influential liberal reformers. In conclusion, moreover, both the Labour Exchanges Act of 1909 and the National Insurance Act of 1911 were ultimately justified as they were seen to be based on, humane grounds, and they were hugely successful at emancipating the working classes of the United Kingdom from, what Heywood describes as the, Spread of slums, poverty, ignorance and disease which was driving factor for all of the liberal reforms in the 46 year period between 1870 and 1918.[12: Goodwin B, Using Political Ideas,2007 pg.54][13: Goodwin B, Using Political Ideas,2007 pg.49][14: Goodwin B, Using Political Ideas,2007 pg.50][15: Goodwin B, Using Political Ideas,2007 pg.50][16: Goodwin B, Using Political Ideas,2007 pg.49 ][17: Heywood A, Political Ideologies, 2007 pg. 56] Therefore, to conclude, during the half century of liberal governments, one did see a huge improvement of both living standards and education as well as the partial emancipation of the individual. During Gladstones first and second ministry, one saw the electorate nearly doubled, leading to huge emancipation of those who, never before could vote. Gladstones government also made education mandatory for those under the age of 10, therefore emancipating children from what Heywood calls, slums, poverty, ignorance and disease. Whereas, during the liberal government, headed by Herbert Asquith, between 1906 and 1918, the liberal government had discernibly more success in emancipating the individual as it provided both the Labour Exchanges in 1909 as well as National Insurance for those who were too sick to work. Whilst these successes in emancipating the individual were important, they were also marred by the fact that none of these reforms provided universal suffrage, a key principle of emancipation. Therefore, whilst the liberals were for the most part successful in emancipating the individual in the years between 1870 and 1918, their achievements were  hampered by the fact that they failed to provide universal suffrage and consequently, one can conclude that the liberals emancipated the individual with partial success during their period of governance. [18: Heywood A, Political Ideologies, 2007 pg. 56] Bibliography: R. Rurup, _Leo Baeck Institute Yearbook_, (1975) 20 (1) Vincent A, A _Modern Political Ideologies,_ (Blackwell) 1992 Heywood A, _Political Ideologies an Introduction,_ (Palgrave Macmillan) 2007 Goodwin B, _Using Political Ideas,_ (John Wiley Sons) 2007 Craig F.W.S, _British Electoral Facts 1832-1987_, (Politicos Publishing) 1989 Vincent-Emy, H _Liberals, radicals, and social politics, 1892-1914_ (Cambridge University Press) 2008 Watts, D _Whigs, Radicals, and Liberals, 1815-1914_ (Hodder Education) 2002

The Characters of Brutus and Cassius in Julius Caesar :: Julius Caesar Essays

The Characters of Brutus and Cassius in Julius Caesar Brutus and Cassius? Of these two who is most suitable to lead the assassination plot and to lead in the civil war? Brutus and Cassius are two very different characters. Brutus is a more dominant and noble character. He is honest, naive, and sincere. Then there is Cassius who is a perceptive person and very manipulative. He is fearful, envious, and a military strategist. Both of them perceive Antony in a different way, this is where their personalities clash and their differences begin. Brutus is a good friend of Caesar, who believes highly in his principles. His principles somewhat control how he behaves. He is influenced by ideas, instead of what other people think. In the play Julius Caesar, Brutus becomes the most complex character, and he becomes the tragic hero of the play. Brutus is a very naive and trusting person when it comes to judging Antony, but he underestimates how dangerous Antony really is. (Act 2 Scene 1, 178) Brutus' decisions have had some bad consequences. Allowing Antony to speak at the funeral and deciding to risk the battle at Philippi was one of his philosophical decisions with a bad consequence. ( Act 4 Scene 3, 228) Although, he thinks that is isn't necessary to kill Antony because without Caesar, Brutus believes Antony is worthless. Brutus is a noble person and holds his country high. Even Cassius knows how noble and honorable Brutus really is. When someone is willing to die for their country, "thou art noble." (Act 1 Scene 2, 320) Everyone even Caesar, admires him and tries to be friends with him. But in the end Brutus is tragic because he tries to be better then he can be and that causes him to fall. Cassius views Caesar differently, he does not like the fact that Caesar has become godlike in the eyes of the Romans. Cassius is a different man to different people, depending on who it is he can be loving or ruthless, gentle or rough, passionate or mean. Caesar's opinion on Cassius is "Yond Cassius has a lean and hungry look; He thinks too much: such men are dangerous." ( Act 1 Scene 2, 194 ) Brutus' opinion is, "The last of all the Romans, fare thee well! It is impossible that ever Rome should breed thy fellow [equal].

Sustainability in Entrepreneurship, Innovation

Discuss the relationship between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development. What role does sustainability play in this relationship? Refer to both theory and examples from the business world to support your discussion. In today’s economy, entrepreneurship is an important subject and entrepreneurial abilities have become a pivotal requirement both nationally and globally. However, enterprises that succeed mostly do so as they are capable of change for the better, through innovation. So for an enterprise to be successful innovation is required.Creativity and innovation is at the heart of the 21st century. For example in the United States alone, more than 16,000 firms operate their own research labs! These successful enterprises and their advancements in innovation as a result lead to a country’s economic development. Economic development has become a focus of attention by governments around the world. As the UK Office of Science and Technology (2007) put it, à ¢â‚¬Å"Innovation is the motor of the modern economy.. † Thus there is no doubt that a connection between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development prevails.The three factors are complementary because innovation helps any form of entrepreneurship to prosper, thereby increasing its economic value, thus contributing to economic development. This paper will examine this relationship of entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development, and explore the extent of its connection. To begin, it will define these terms, and then connect them accordingly, using economic literature and real life examples for evidence. Secondly, the essay will look at what sustainability is, types f sustainable innovation, whether it’s a threat or opportunity for enterprises, and its effect on economic development.The term entrepreneurship can take numerous definitions. Simply put, entrepreneurship is the act of an entrepreneur, and that is someone who assumes the risk for and organi zes a business project. Economist Richard Cantillon first used the term entrepreneurship in his book Essai Sur La Nature de Commerce en General (1959) where he explains that an entrepreneur is one who buys things at a lower price, and sells them at a higher price, undertaking the risk factor. More recently, Joseph Shumpeter provided a thorough description, where he divided entrepreneurship to two types: allocating and catalytic.Further, Shumpeter (1934) stressed on the importance of an entrepreneur to be innovative, â€Å"Whatever the type, everyone is an entrepreneur only when he actually carries out a new combinations and loses that character as soon as he has built up his business†. This leads into the connection of entrepreneurship with innovation. Mintzberg (1983) defined innovation as â€Å"the means to break away from established patterns. † Innovation is the creation of something new; and in the business world, it would be for moneymaking benefit. According to Shumpeter, it can be the creation of a new product, opening a new market and so on.Thus, it can be stated that innovation is required for an enterprise to succeed, so is a factor contributing to the process of entrepreneurship. Innovation can take two forms, incremental or radical. A radical innovation can be stated as a â€Å"gap-filler† as economist Harvey Leibenstein (1968) put it, which is a novel creation that fills a â€Å"gap† in the market. Radical innovation is a vital for economic development as the problem is missing markets is solved. There we see the connection of innovation with economic development.Economic development can be defined as a positive progress in an economy, usually through government expenditures to promote the wellbeing of the economy and society as a whole. It can be measured by taking into account a country’s standard of living, economic health, environmental sustainability and other factors. According to Harvey Leibenstein in his book The American Economic Review (1968 p77), there is no universally accepted theory of economic development, but there are two important elements that contribute to development, one of which is the â€Å"Interaction between the creation of economic capacity and the related creation of demand [.. The entrepreneur is probably the prime mover of the ‘capacity creation’ part of these elements of the growth process. † In addition, as said in the Hamilton Project (2012), â€Å"Innovation has transformed the American economy through the development of automobiles and highways, airplanes, telecommunications, and the internet, all of which have made it progressively easier for businesses to market their products.. † which as a result, help the business enterprises. Thus, it is undeniable that there is strong connection between entrepreneurship, innovation and conomic development, as has been stated in literature time and time again. It can also be proven with th e use of real life examples, for instance in the software industry, which today is globally worth $489 billion. Microsoft, â€Å"the worldwide leader in software technology†, an innovation founded by Bill Gates, had a revenue of $28. 37 billion in the year 2002, and employed more than 50,000 employees in 78 countries as said in Andriopoulos and Dawson’s, Managing Change, Creativity & Innovation Textbook (2009 p94).Microsoft’s software is an example of an incremental innovation, and a successful enterprise, which thus became a major contributor to USA’s economic development. An example of a radical innovation that majorly contributed to economic development was Henry Fords simple invention of the assembly line method of production in the 1920’s. Its application to the production of Ford cars reduced the time to produce the Model T Ford by 68%, thereby increasing efficiency, and reducing its cost by 62%, thereby increasing the demand for the car.This a result increased employment in America, increased travel around the country, helped all businesses reduce costs, and raised the standard of living of the middle-class American family who could now afford a car, which had once been a luxury. All these factors contributed to of economic development of the US economy, which was booming at the time. Therefore, it can be firmly stated that a strong connection between entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development does exist, and that they are often times co-occurring.A change in one can have an effect on the other; however, they are not dependent upon on another. For example, economic develop does have other factors contributing to it, aside from entrepreneurial gain. Secondly, I believe that entrepreneurships can succeed without innovation. This is where I disagree with Schumpeter’s theory of Creative Destruction. In this, Shumpeter claims that an entrepreneur has to do something novel to be successful, however in world of business there have been instances that prove his theory wrong.For example, in the 1990s’s, a team of entrepreneurs from the US implemented a set of multi screen cinemas in Mexico City called Cinemax, which was a well-known and established business model in the US. This was very successful in Mexico City, and the chain of cinemas was sold for $300 million ten years later. This is very entrepreneurial, but not innovative. Therefore I believe that whilst innovation and entrepreneurship go hand in hand, an entrepreneur does not necessarily need to be innovative in his/her thinking to be successful.Hence, I agree with Schumpeter’s theory only to an extent, in that they are strongly related, but disagree with the fact that an entrepreneurship has to be novel in order to be successful and contribute to economic development. Almost all economies today are growing rapidly, China and India for example. Though this is a primary objective of all countries, governments and oth er environmentally friendly organizations are far more concerned on ensuring that this development occurs without excessive damage to the environment.The aim is to ensure human needs are met; but also conserved for the needs of the future generations, and as a result conserving the environment. This is also known as sustainable development. According to the Brundtland report (1987), sustainable development is â€Å"Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. † Sustainability can take many forms, including economic, social and environmental. This essay will look at sustainability in the economic form and understand sustainability from the business point of view.The implementation of government regulations, such as UK’s DEFRA, which look at conserving and protecting the environment, and fine or reprove businesses that do not, may initially seem as a problem for many companies. But in actu ality, in can help the businesses and even be an opportunity for innovation. The need to be sustainable has created environmentally friendly inventions, an internal driver of sustainability, boosting economic growth accordingly. Sustainability in business encourages enterprises to cut down on its costs and produce more with less. Companies today reduce, reuse and recycling waste material.In addition, it gives way for invention of environmentally friendly products, such as the Panasonic’s Rhythm eShower for water conservation and Toyota’s invention of the Prius, an electric car, which would in turn reduce fuel consumption. Toyota even won the title of â€Å"Best Global Green Brands 2012† (BusinessWeek, 2012) for the second time in a row. Further, it has resulted in the invention of renewable energy methods such as solar photovoltaic cells and tidal stream generators, a new industry in the market. British company, Lunar Energy has decided to build the worlds first tidal energy farm deep sea, providing energy for 5000 homes.As a result, creating employment too. The requirement for businesses to be sustainable has created employment, promoted innovation and has even opened up a whole new industry in renewable energy, thereby contributing to economic growth. The contribution sustainable development makes to the economy is clear in the long run, as the economy is sure to sustain in the future as well. The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change (2006) explains how there is a negative impact on economic growth if governments and businesses are not environmentally friendly.Economist Nicholas Stern stated that if we don’t act in a sustainable manner, the impacts that occur would cost damage worth of 20% of a country’s GDP. Whereas in contrast, investment in greener and more sustainable development today, would only cost 1% of global GDP each year. I believe that while sustainable development may result in some businesses to lo se out, overall it opens new industries, encourages innovation and also works in favor of the economy in the long run.To conclude, It can be stated that sustainability can play an important role in economic development, and can encourage enterprises to innovate environmentally friendly technology, cut costs, and thus be more successful. It also helps a country’s economy in the long run as it would not have to heavily spend on the damages caused by global warming. As said by Schumpeter, (1934 p367) â€Å"The entrepreneur is the prime mover in economic development and his function is to carry out new combinations. † This is true in the sense that through innovation, enterprises can succeed and contribute to an economy’s development.Thus, it is clear that businesses and innovation have a positive effect on economic development are strongly connected. But again, I do not believe that all enterprises must be innovative to succeed, and that for a new business to open, a current one must be eroded. Therefore in conclusion it can be stated that entrepreneurship, innovation and economic development are complementary in real life, and are at often times co-occurring, but are not dependent on one another. And encouraging businesses to be sustainable will only have a positive impact on the economy, when taking the long run impacts into account.Bibliography The American Economic Review Harvey Leibenstein. (May 1968) Page 77. Volume 78, No. 2, American Economic Association. Entrepreneurship and Small Businesses Paul Burns. (2007) 2nd Edition, Palgrave MacMillan, New York Stern Review of the Economics of Climate Change Nicholas Stern. (October, 2006) The Theory of Economic Development Joseph A. Shumpeter. (1983) Transaction Publishers, New Brunswick, New Jersey Our Common Future (The Report of the Brundtland Commission) United Nations World Commission on Environment and Development. 1987) BusinessWeek Bloomberg. (July 2012) Power In and Around Organizati ons (The Theory of Management Policy) Henry Mintzberg. (January 1983) Published by Prentice Hall, College Division Hamilton Project Michael Greenstone, Adam Looney and Leslie B. Samuels. (May 2012) Managing Change, Creativity & Innovation Constantine Andriopoulos and Patrick Dawson. (2007) Published by TJ International Ltd. Padstow, Great Britain Essai Sur La Nature de Commerce en General Richard Cantillon. (1959) Published by Frank Cass and Co. , London

Masculinity and Femininity Essay

Throughout history and across culture, definitions of masculinity and femininity have varied dramatically, leading researchers to argue that gender, and specifically gender roles, are socially constructed (see Cheng, 1999). Cheng (1999:296) further states that â€Å"one should not assume that ‘masculine’ behaviour is performed only by men, and by all men, while ‘feminine’ behaviour is performed by women and by all women†. Such historical and cultural variations oppose the essentialist view that masculinity, femininity and gender roles are biologically ingrained in males and females prior to birth (Cheng, 1999). These socially constructed stereotypes surrounding masculinity and femininity coupled with their cultural and historical variations are the focus of this essay, leading into the sociological implications of the findings. Whilst practices of gender roles have varied dramatically across history and culture, the stereotypes surrounding masculinity and femininity have remained fairly stoic (Cheng,1999). Masculinity has been continually characterised by traits such as â€Å"independence, confidence and assertiveness†, with these traits relating directly to aspects of dominance, authority, power and success (Leaper, 1995:1). Cheng (1999:298) links these traits of masculinity to hegemonic masculinity, as â€Å"a culturally idealised form of masculine character.† Connell (1995:76) agrees, stipulating that hegemonic masculinity is culturally and historically variable, being simply â€Å"the masculinity that occupies the hegemonic position in a given pattern of gender relations.† This serves to emphasise that, if hegemonic masculinity is at the top of the pyramid of a set of gender relations, and these gender relations (as seen below) can vary, hegemonic masculinity itself can also vary ac ross cultures and historical periods. This indicates that the previously alluded to traits of masculinity are instead the Western traits of hegemonic masculinity (Connell, 1995). Femininity, on the other hand, has often been categorised as the complete opposite of hegemonic masculinity (Leaper, 1995). Leaper (1995:1) has emphasised many stereotypically feminine characteristics, including â€Å"understanding, compassion[ate] and affection[ate].† These characteristics often perpetuate the gender role of the loving, nurturing mother and domestic home-maker, emphasising success (as opposed to the masculine success of wealth and status accumulation) as a  tidy house and well-fed children (Hoffman, 2001). Various scholarly research has highlighted how such stereotypes of masculinity and femininity are continually perpetuated by the wider population, with Leaper (1995) reporting there is much distaste for a masculine woman or feminine man. However, regardless of the stereotypes associated with masculinity and femininit y, cultural variations of these stereotypical gender roles exist. It has long been argued that definitions and practices of masculinity and femininity vary across cultures (see Cheng, 1999), with evidence surrounding variations in masculinity being drawn from Japan, the Sambia region of Papua New Guinea, America and Latin America. Sugihara and Katsurada (1999:635) reiterate this perspective by stating that â€Å"[c]ulture defines gender roles [and] societal values†. Sugihara and Katsurada’s (1999:645) study of gender roles in Japanese society characterised Japanese hegemonic masculinity as â€Å"a man with internal strength† as opposed to the physical strength typically emphasised within Western societies’ ideal man. In contrast, the American notion of hegemonic masculinity is predominantly seen as to include heterosexism, gender difference and dominance (Kiesling, 2005). Specifically, as stated by Kiesling (2005), masculinity in America relies upon being heterosexual, in a position of power, dominance or authority and believing that there is a categorical difference between men and women in terms of biology and behaviour. It is this Western notion of masculinity that is often seen to perpetuate stereotypical gender roles, as alluded to previously (Leaper, 1995). Further variations in masculinity across cultures can be seen in recent research in the Sambia region of Papua New Guinea, where it was discovered that masculinity â€Å"is the outcome of a regime of ritualised homosexuality leading into manhood† (Macionis and Plummer, 2005:307) Such engaging in homosexual acts, whilst considered an example of hegemonic masculinity in the Sambia region, is considered a subordinated masculinity in the Western world, indicating how hegemonic masculinity can vary across cultures (Connell, 1995). Another cultural variation at the opposite end of the spectrum to the homosexuality of the Sambia region, the internalised strengths of Japanese men and even in contrast to the authoritative dominance of American masculinity, is the ‘machismo’ construct of masculinity in Latino men. The masculinity shown in  Latino men can be described as an exaggerated form of American hegemonic masculinity, with a focus on physical strength, toughness and acting as both a protector and an authority figure (Saez et. al, 2009). These four variations alone – between Japanese, Sambian, American and Latin American masculinity – emphasise the cultural differences in masculinity. Femininity, however, shows to some extent, even greater variation cross-culturally. Delph-Janiurck (2000:320) suggests that femininity focuses on â€Å"social relations†¦ the home†¦ [and] (re)creating feelings of togetherness†, re-emphasising the traditional stereotypical gender role of the nurturing, motherly home-maker. This definition of femininity can be reiterated by Sugihara and Katsurada’s (1999:636) study, where they found Japanese women portrayed aspects of Connell’s (1995) emphasised femininity, in that they were â€Å"reserved, subservient and obey[ed] their husbands.† However, these traditional traits of femininity are not the same across cultures. Margaret Mead’s study of the Mungdugumor and Tchambuli tribes of Papua New Guinea stand in stark contrast to the femininity previously emphasised. The Mungdugumor tribe showed both males and females as aggressive and powerful, typically masculine traits to the Western world (Lutkehaus, 1993). The Tchambuli tribe, in contrast, reversed the Western gender roles completely, resulting in the males being more submissive and females acting more aggressive (Gewertz, 1984). In the Western world and specifically Australia, variations in comparison to other cultures could not be more obvious. Harrison (1997) emphasises how the English tradition of debutante balls, adapted by many religious institutions in Australia, promotes a feminine ideal of monogamous heterosexuality, coupled with passivity, beauty, modesty and virginity. This version of femininity stands in stark contrast to the subservience of Japanese women, and the aggressive traits of both the Tchambuli and Mungdugumor tribes’ women, as a cross-cultural example of varied femininity. These examples further serve to emphasise how variable masculinity and femininity are across cultures. However, such variations are similarly evident across historical periods. Historical variations in masculinity and femininity also exist, further serving to emphasise that gender roles are a socially constructed  creation. Cheng (1999:298) reiterates this stating that, â€Å"[a]s history changes, so does the definition of hegemonic masculinity†, emphasising how variable social constructions of gender roles are. In the last century alone, the American version of hegemonic masculinity has witnessed significant changes. Before the first World War, hegemonic masculinity was portrayed through the likes of Humphrey Bogart and Clark Gable, before being overturned by the â€Å"more physical, muscular, violent and sexual† Arnold Schwarzenegger and Sylvester Stallone (Cheng, 1999:300). Another example exists in Australia, where masculinity has seen a similar shift from the 1950s until now. Pennell (2001:7) has emphasised how masculinity in Australia started with the patriarchy, the belief that â€Å"moral and legal authority derives from the masculine.† The 1950s particularly portrayed masculine males as the breadwinners and feminine females as homemakers, examples of the gender role stereotypes continually perpetuated today (Pennell, 2001). As the years progressed, sports stars such as Donald Bradman and, more recently, Shane Warne and Olympian James Mangussen, began to portray typical hegemonic masculinity, with more emphasis being placed upon physique, dominance and power, than simply material wealth (Pennell, 2001). However, masculinity is not the only thing that has seen significant historical change. Femininity, however, has not changed as dramatically as masculinity, remaining, as emphasised by Cheng (1999), the subordinated gender. Matthews (in Baldock, 1985) emphasises the changes that have occurred in femininity over the twentieth century, from women portraying their femininity through submissive acts of unpaid work to women’s emancipation and allowance in joining the workforce, emphasising a less submissive, more powerful and independent notion of femininity. Whilst the feminist movement showed significant improvements to women’s rights, historical notions of femininity – passivity, domesticity and beauty – continue to be perpetuated in Australian society (Cheng, 1999). This emphasises how society may not change as fast as evidence surrounding the social construction of gender roles arises (Cheng, 1999). Various sociological implications arise from these examples of  varying masculinities and femininities across culture and history, particularly that it suggests gender roles are â€Å"not homogenous, unchanging, fixed or undifferentiated† (Cheng, 1999:301). To some extent, such evidence can dispute claims that gender roles, masculinities and femininities are biologically determined and can argue against the essentialist argument that there are two and â€Å"only two bi-polar gender roles† (Cheng, 1999:296). The evidence, that masculinity and femininity vary cross-culturally and over historical periods has the ability to argue against the essentialist argument, as it shows the more than two gender roles exist, with variations between cultures (such as the varied femininities across Japan and PNG) and within historical periods (such as the variations in American hegemonic masculinity). In a societal sense, evidence suggesting that gender roles are not biologically constructed, but instead vary throughout culture and history, emphasises that such perceived inevitable functions of society, such as the patriarchal dividend and gender inequality are not inevitable biological constructs (Hoffman, 2001). They could be argued, instead, as socially constructed blockades to female empowerment and equality, that, such as can be seen in the Tchambuli tribe of Mead’s study, can be reversed (Lutkehaus, 1993). The evidence that masculinities and femininities vary diversely across culture and historical period further empahsises that gender roles and gender divides are socially constructed. With evidence drawn from as far reaching as PNG and Japan and over vast historical periods, it can be reiterated that gender roles and perceptions of masculinity and femininity are not unchanging (Cheng, 1999). As emphasised throughout this essay, such evidence disputes essentialist arguments regarding the supposed inevitable patriarchal dividend and, in relation to society, reiterates that gender roles can change.

Richard Iii Summary Essays

Richard Iii Summary Essays Richard Iii Summary Essay Richard Iii Summary Essay Essay Topic: Hard Times shakespeare: Richard III Shakespeare successfully portrays (his purpose in relation to the values and expectations of the Elizabethan context) through stage play techniques such as, use of soliloquy, dramatic irony, and humour. He also uses language techniques such as visual imagery and sound imagery throughout his play to explore the villainous role and character of Richard which leads to the development of the key themes in his play, Richard III. The first soliloquy informs the audience of Richard’s inner thoughts while also establishing his character, dark motives, and his intention in the play. The opening statement, â€Å"Now is the winter of our discontent†, refers to Richard’s unhappiness as a result of the war ending and the peace that replaces the feeling of villainy. This immediately informs the audience of Richard’s dark personality and the villainy within him. His villainy and evilness is reinforced in â€Å"Our stern alarums changed to merry meetings, Our dreadful marches to delightful measures†, emphasizing that he does not want peace or to share happy times, but instead thrives on chaos and violence. We also learn of Richard’s feelings towards his appearance in his first soliloquy, the adjectives used by Shakespeare describe Richard’s physical defects, â€Å"Deformed, unfinished, sent before my time†. This statement reveals his sense of self unattractiveness which is reinforced in â€Å"That dogs bark at me as I halt by them, showing that his appearance has the ability to even scare animals. His evil and manipulative behaviour is shown again when he plans to set his brothers Clarence and King Edward against each other. This informs the audience of his high level of self importance and that he will always put himself ahead of his family to receive the crown, this is also proven as he is planning to take the lives of Edwards heirs in sacrifice for the crown to himself.

What to Know About Presidential Appointments

What to Know About Presidential Appointments Presidential appointments come in two forms: those that require the approval of the Senate and those that do not. Aside from Cabinet secretaries and Supreme Court justices, whose nominations require the approval of the Senate, the President of the United States currently has the authority to appoint people to high-level positions within the federal government unilaterally. According to the Government Accountability Office (GAO), most of these positions appointed directly by the president come with salaries of from $99,628 to about $180,000 per year and include full federal employee benefits. How Many and Where? In its report to Congress, the GAO identified 321 presidentially appointed (PA) positions governmentwide that do not require Senate confirmation. PA positions fall into one of three categories: 67% of the positions serve on federal commissions, councils, committees, boards or foundations; 29% of the positions are within the Executive Office of the President, and the remaining 4% are in other federal agencies or departments.Of those 321 PA positions, 163 were created on August 10, 2012, when President Obama signed the Presidential Appointment Efficiency and Streamlining Act. The act converted 163 presidential nominations, all of which had previously required Senate hearings and approval, to positions appointed directly by the president. According to the GAO, most PA positions were created between 1970 and 2000. What the PAs Do PAs appointed to commissions, councils, committees, boards, or foundations and typically serve as advisors. However, they may be assigned some degree of responsibility for evaluating or even creating the organizations policy and direction.PAs in the Executive Office of the President (EOP) often directly support the president by providing advisory and administrative assistance. They might be expected to advise the president on a wide range of areas, including foreign relations, US and international economic policy, and homeland security. Also, PAs in the EOP assist in maintaining relationships between the White House and Congress, the executive branch agencies, and state and local governments.Responsibilities of PAs serving directly in federal agencies and departments are the most diverse. They may be assigned to assist presidential appointees in positions that require Senate approval. Others may serve as US representatives to United Nations organizations. Others may be assigned leade rship roles at highly visible non-agency organizations, such as the National Cancer Institute or the National Institutes of Health. In most cases, there are no specific qualifications for PA positions, and since the appointments do not come under Senate scrutiny, they are subject to being used as political favors. However, PA positions on commissions, councils, committees, boards or foundations often have legally required qualifications. How Much the PAs Make First of all, most PAs are not paid a salary. According to the GAO, 99% of all PAs- those serving as advisors to commissions, councils, committees, boards or foundations- are either not compensated at all or are paid a daily rate of $634 or less only while serving.The remaining 1% of PAs- those in the EOP and those serving in federal agencies and departments- are paid salaries ranging from $99,628 to $180,000. However, there are notable exceptions. For example, the Director of the National Cancer Institute is a PA position within the Department of Health and Human Services that receives a salary of $350,000, according to the GAO.PA positions in the EOP and the federal departments and agencies are mostly full-time jobs and have no term limits. PAs appointed to commissions, councils, committees, boards or foundations serve intermittently during terms typically lasting from 3 to 6 years. Other Types of Politically Appointed Positions Overall, there are four main categories of politically appointed positions: Presidential Appointments with Senate confirmation (PAS), Presidential Appointments without Senate confirmation (PSs), political appointees to the Senior Executive Service (SES), and Schedule C political appointees. Persons in SES and Schedule C positions are typically appointed by PAS and PA appointees, rather than the President. However, all appointments to SES and Schedule C posts must be reviewed and approved by the Executive Office of the President. As of 2012, the GAO reported a total of 3,799 politically appointed federal positions, including 321 PA positions, 1,217 PAS positions, 789 SES positions, and 1,392 Schedule C positions. Presidential Appointments with Senate confirmation (PAS) positions are the top of the federal personnel food chain, and include positions such as cabinet agency secretaries and top administrators and deputy administrators of the non-cabinet agencies. Holders of PAS positions have direct responsibility for implementing the presidents goals and policies. During  the fiscal year 2013, salaries for PAS positions ranged from $145,700 to $199,700, the current salary of cabinet secretaries. PAs, while significantly responsible for implementing White House goals and policies, often serve under PAS appointees. Senior Executive Service (SES) appointees serve in positions just below PAS appointees. According to the U.S. Office of Personnel Management, they are the major link between these appointees and the rest of the Federal workforce. They operate and oversee nearly every government activity in approximately 75 Federal agencies. In the fiscal year 2013, salaries for Senior Executive Service appointees ranged from $119,554 to $179,700. Schedule C appointments are typically non-career assignments to positions ranging from regional directors of agencies to staff assistants and speech writers. Schedule C appointees are typically changed with each new incoming presidential administration, making them the category of presidential appointments most likely to be handed out as political favors. Salaries for Schedule C appointees range from $67,114 to $155,500. SES and Schedule C appointees typically serve in subordinate roles to PAS and PA appointees. At the Pleasure of the President By their very nature, presidential political appointments are not for people looking for a stable, long-term career. To be appointed in the first place, political appointees are expected to support the policies and goals of the presidents administration. As the GAO puts it, Individuals serving in political appointments generally serve at the pleasure of the appointing authority and do not have the job protections afforded to those in career-type appointments.

CJUS 330 DB2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

CJUS 330 DB2 - Essay Example This is through hiring public defenders for them. The government ensures that traditional public defenders get paid so that indigent defendants get representation in court. Though not established in the constitution, it is paramount that the government provide defenders for the destitute, free of charge. The expenses incurred will be catered for by the government (Neubauer & Fradella, 2010). This is as the agreement between the parties dictates. In order to maintain the indigent defenders’ rights and privileges, one has to be aware of what they are going through (Howell & Yedid, 2003). They must be going through difficulties since they cannot raise an attorney’s fee when the need arises. Understanding people can put one in their position, and thus, represent them as they are supposed to be. In conclusion, it is imperative that all those in positions that can help others play their roles as required. If they cannot perform these basic functions, then they should not be in these powerful positions. The rights and privileges of individuals may be maintained through the observation of some of the laws that do not necessarily protect the rich. In doing this, everyone might end up benefitting from the justice system (Howell & Yedid,

Marketing Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 4

Marketing Management - Essay Example The use of English advertising in foreign countries is one that is well-studied. In Japan, for instance, the usage of English connotes sophistication and modernity, as it also does in South Asia countries like India. In India, the usage of English is used to convey sophistication and modernity, while the usage of Hindi, the lingua franca of India, is used to connote tradition and belonging. In the Hispanic population living in the United States, English advertisements is seen as not accommodating, yet is somewhat positive if the listener has linguistic insecurity. Spanish advertisements have the opposite effect they are accommodating, yet are somewhat negative for those with linguistic insecurity. Therefore, the researcher found that a mix of Spanish and English is most effective in these populations, as it mixes accommodation and respect (the Spanish part of the ad) with a positive feeling of linguistic security (the English part of the ad). The use of English in the country of Japan is becoming an increasingly popular phenomenon. The attribution of the high number of loan words in Japan dates back to the Meiji Restoration in 1868, in which Japan was transformed from feudal to a modern state by adopting Western civilization (Takashi, 1990, p. 327). There are a high number of English loan words in the Japanese language, much more so than loan words from European nations. English loan words represent 80.8% of Western loan words in Japan, with the other western loan words coming from France, Germany, Italian and Dutch (Takashi, 1990, p. 327). This is because the Japanese study English more than any other foreign language. There is some thought that the Japanese people regard English as representative of something cosmopolitan and international, and modern English words are seen as conveying sophistication and modernity, especially in they are used in advertising. (Takashi, 1990, p.